50 Fun Facts About Philosophy

Which Greek philosopher is associated with a question-and-answer method of inquiry?

In Plato's Theaetetus, Socrates compares his questioning to midwifery, drawing understanding out of his partners rather than putting it in.

In which of Plato's works does he present the Allegory of the Cave, in Book VII?

Republic presents the cave in Book VII, to compare 'the effect of education and the lack of it on our nature'.

What Kantian concept says an action is moral if its maxim can be universalised without contradiction?

The Categorical Imperative, set out in Kant's 1785 Groundwork of the Metaphysics of Morals, judges an action by whether its maxim could be willed as a universal law, not by its consequences.

Which 20th-century philosopher introduced the concept of 'Dasein'?

Martin Heidegger gave Dasein, ordinary German for 'existence' and already used by Kant and Hegel, its special sense of human being-in-the-world in Being and Time (1927).

Which branch of philosophy is concerned with the nature of knowledge, its acquisition, and its limits?

Epistemology is the branch of philosophy that studies knowledge. It investigates what knowledge is, how it is acquired, and to what extent it is possible for human beings to know things.

'Cogito, ergo sum' ('I think, therefore I am') is a cornerstone of whose philosophy?

René Descartes made it the 'first principle' of his philosophy, the foundational certainty in his quest for indubitable knowledge.

Which philosopher proposed 'tabula rasa', the idea that we are born without innate mental content?

John Locke argued in his 1689 Essay Concerning Human Understanding that the mind begins as 'white paper, void of all characters'; the Latin tag tabula rasa was attached to his view later.

Which Cynic philosopher lived in a ceramic jar and wandered Athens by day with a lit lantern, 'looking for a man'?

Diogenes of Sinope, the Cynic, famously met Alexander the Great at Corinth around 336 BC and asked the conqueror only to step out of his sunlight.

Which ethical framework is often summarized by the phrase 'the greatest good for the greatest number'?

Utilitarianism, developed by Jeremy Bentham and John Stuart Mill, judges acts by their outcomes, which is why it is classed as a consequentialist theory.

Which philosophy founded by Zeno of Citium emphasises virtue, reason and harmony with nature?

Stoicism is an ancient Greek philosophy founded by Zeno of Citium around 300 BCE. It teaches that virtue, reason, and living in accordance with nature are key to achieving 'eudaimonia' (flourishing) and tranquility.

Which English philosopher introduced the runaway-trolley thought experiment in a 1967 paper?

Foot's original version was a 'trolley driver' dilemma; Judith Jarvis Thomson later added the bystander and footbridge variants that made it famous.

What does Aristotle call the desirable middle ground between two extremes?

Aristotle's Golden Mean, worked out in Book II of the Nicomachean Ethics, treats each virtue of character as a mean between two vices, such as courage between cowardice and rashness.

Which philosophical school holds reason to be the primary source of knowledge, in contrast to empiricism?

Rationalism regards reason as the chief origin and test of knowledge, giving it precedence over faith, tradition or the sensory experience that empiricism stresses.

Which ancient writer preserved the ship-with-replaced-planks puzzle in his life of Theseus?

Plutarch records in his Life of Theseus that Athenians kept replacing the ship's planks; Thomas Hobbes later asked what happens if a second ship is rebuilt from the discarded ones.

Which English philosopher set out social contract theory in his 1651 book Leviathan?

Thomas Hobbes argued in Leviathan for a strong sovereign to escape the 'state of nature', a 'war of all against all'.

The ancient Greek school of philosophy founded by Plato was known by what name?

Plato's Academy took its name from a grove sacred to the hero Akademos outside Athens; the Lyceum, the Garden and the Stoa were the later schools of Aristotle, Epicurus and Zeno.

Which ancient Greek philosopher is considered the founder of Skepticism, advocating suspension of judgment?

Pyrrho of Elis, who is said to have travelled to India with Alexander the Great's army, founded the school of Skepticism whose goal was tranquillity through suspending judgment (epoché).

Which English jurist and 'greatest happiness' theorist devised the 'felicific calculus'?

Jeremy Bentham set out the felicific calculus in his 1789 Introduction to the Principles of Morals and Legislation; his preserved 'auto-icon' has been kept at University College London since 1850.

Which philosopher developed the theory of historical materialism with Friedrich Engels?

Karl Marx framed it as a response to German idealism and to the classical economics of Adam Smith and David Ricardo, calling the economy the base and law and ideology the superstructure.

Which Neoplatonist philosopher and mathematician was killed by an Alexandrian mob in 415 AD?

Hypatia, who taught Neoplatonist philosophy and mathematics in Alexandria, was murdered by a Christian mob in March 415 AD; she was preceded as a female mathematician there by Pandrosion.

The 'Will to Power' is a central idea in the philosophy of which German thinker?

The 'Will to Power' is a fundamental concept in the philosophy of Friedrich Nietzsche. It describes what Nietzsche believed to be the main driving force in humans: achievement, ambition, and the striving to reach the highest possible position in life.

Which French existentialist wrote Being and Nothingness?

Jean-Paul Sartre's *Being and Nothingness: An Essay on Phenomenological Ontology* (1943) is a seminal work in existentialist philosophy, exploring themes of consciousness, freedom, responsibility, and the nature of human existence.

Which rationalist philosopher developed the theory of 'monads'?

Gottfried Leibniz set out his theory of monads in the 1714 Monadology, about 90 numbered paragraphs written in French during his last stay in Vienna.

Which philosopher wrote 'Whereof one cannot speak, thereof one must be silent' in his Tractatus?

Ludwig Wittgenstein, one of the most important philosophers of the 20th century, concluded his *Tractatus Logico-Philosophicus* with the statement, 'Whereof one cannot speak, thereof one must be silent,' emphasizing the limits of language and logic.

Which French philosopher wrote The Second Sex and explored the concept of 'the Other'?

Simone de Beauvoir, a French existentialist philosopher and feminist, authored *The Second Sex* (1949), a groundbreaking work that analyzes the oppression of women and explores the concept of woman as 'the Other' in patriarchal society.

'Power-knowledge' and 'discourse' are central to which postmodern French philosopher?

Michel Foucault introduced 'power-knowledge' (le savoir-pouvoir) to analyse how power, knowledge and discourse shape social institutions and the individual.

Which philosopher explored "the absurd" in his essay "The Myth of Sisyphus"?

Albert Camus's 1942 essay locates the absurd in the clash between our need for meaning and the 'unreasonable silence' of the universe, and concludes that we must imagine Sisyphus happy.

Which 19th-century philosopher, called the 'Father of Existentialism', emphasised individual choice and the 'leap of faith'?

Søren Kierkegaard published much of his work under pseudonyms such as Johannes Climacus and Victor Eremita, and spent his last years in a public feud with the Danish state church.

Which ancient Chinese philosopher is traditionally credited with founding Taoism?

Laozi is traditionally credited with the Tao Te Ching too, and some traditions hold that he became an immortal hermit.

Confucianism originated in which country?

Confucianism is a comprehensive philosophical system developed by Confucius in ancient China. It has profoundly influenced Chinese culture, emphasizing ethics, morality, family loyalty, and social harmony.

Which novelist-philosopher developed Objectivism, championing rational egoism and individual rights?

Ayn Rand, a Russian-American novelist, philosopher, playwright, and screenwriter, developed the philosophical system of Objectivism. It emphasizes rational self-interest, individual rights, and laissez-faire capitalism.

Which empiricist philosopher is known for his radical skepticism about causation and induction?

David Hume's problem of induction holds that any inference from past experience presupposes that the future will resemble the past, a presupposition experience itself can never justify.

Which idealist philosopher famously stated 'Esse est percipi' ('To be is to be perceived')?

George Berkeley, an Anglican bishop of Cloyne in Ireland, argued that material things exist only as perceived; the Californian city of Berkeley was named after him.

Logical Positivism was associated with which group of thinkers?

Logical Positivism was a philosophical movement that emerged in the early 20th century, primarily associated with a group of philosophers, scientists, and mathematicians known as the Vienna Circle. They advocated for scientific empiricism and the verification principle.

Which Enlightenment philosopher introduced the concept of the 'general will'?

Jean-Jacques Rousseau argued in The Social Contract (1762) that citizens forced to obey the general will are thereby made free, because collectively they are the authors of the law.

Which medieval philosopher fused Aristotle with Christian theology and offered five ways to prove God exists?

Thomas Aquinas set out the Five Ways in the Summa Theologiae (Part I, question 2), with a longer treatment of the unmoved-mover argument in the Summa contra Gentiles.

Schopenhauer's principal work, published in 1818 and expanded in 1844, has what title?

The World as Will and Representation, first published in 1818 and expanded in 1844, argues that the world of appearances expresses a blind, striving will, the root of Schopenhauer's famous pessimism.

The 'dialectic' and 'Absolute Spirit' are central to which German idealist's philosophy?

G.W.F. Hegel finished the Phenomenology of Spirit in Jena in October 1806, as Napoleon's army arrived for the Battle of Jena; he wrote of seeing the emperor, 'this world-soul', ride through the town.

Which philosopher introduced the 'veil of ignorance' in A Theory of Justice?

John Rawls, a highly influential American political philosopher, introduced the 'veil of ignorance' in *A Theory of Justice*. This thought experiment asks individuals to choose principles of justice for society without knowing their own position, status, or abilities, thus ensuring impartiality.

Which ancient Greek school taught that managing desires and removing fears leads to tranquility ('ataraxia') and freedom from pain ('aponia')?

Epicureanism, founded by Epicurus (341–270 BC), held that managing one's desires, removing unnecessary fears, friendship and virtuous living led to a pleasant life, the highest good.

Which pre-Socratic 'first philosopher' proposed water as the fundamental substance of the world?

Thales of Miletus held that water was the first principle and that the Earth floated on it; he is also credited with predicting the solar eclipse of 585 BC.

Which pre-Socratic philosopher proposed the 'apeiron' (the boundless) as the source of everything?

Anaximander, a student of Thales, diverged from his teacher by proposing the 'apeiron' as the fundamental principle of the cosmos. The apeiron is an undefined, boundless, and infinite substance from which all things arise and to which they return.

Which pre-Socratic philosopher of 'flux' is credited with 'No man ever steps in the same river twice'?

Heraclitus of Ephesus, nicknamed 'the Obscure' for his riddling style, taught that everything flows ('panta rhei'), so the river a person steps into is never the same river.

Which pre-Socratic philosopher argued against change, asserting that true 'Being' is eternal and undivided?

Parmenides of Elea set out his 'way of truth' in a poem; his pupil Zeno of Elea devised the famous paradoxes to defend the claim that change and motion are illusions.

Protagoras's 'Man is the measure of all things' reflects his view on what aspect of knowledge?

Plato read the dictum as denying any objective truth, and it caused a major controversy in its own time.

Which Sophist argued that nothing exists, that if it did it couldn't be known, and if known couldn't be communicated?

Gorgias of Leontini made the argument in his lost work On Non-Existence, which has led some to call him a nihilist and others to read it as a parody of Parmenides.

Which influential early Christian philosopher wrote *Confessions* and *City of God*?

Augustine of Hippo's Confessions is regarded as the first Western autobiography, and City of God was written against the backdrop of the fall of the Western Roman Empire.

Which Roman philosopher wrote The Consolation of Philosophy while imprisoned and awaiting execution?

Boethius, a Roman senator, consul and philosopher, wrote The Consolation of Philosophy in prison while awaiting execution. It became one of the most influential philosophical texts of the Middle Ages, exploring fortune, free will and God.

Which medieval philosopher's ontological argument defines God as 'that than which no greater can be conceived'?

Anselm of Canterbury set it out in the Proslogion of 1078; a monk named Gaunilo replied 'on behalf of the fool' that the same logic would prove a perfect island exists.

Which 14th-century Franciscan is credited with the 'razor' favouring the hypothesis with fewest assumptions?

William of Ockham never wrote the Latin tag usually quoted, 'entities must not be multiplied beyond necessity'; his principle of parsimony was named 'Occam's razor' only centuries after his death.